Historical figures

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• Adolf Hitler leader

  Private firms and profits were retained, with production directed to the state’s purposes under ministerial control. He is placed on the private-ownership side because capital was not socialised and private owners were not expropriated, which is exactly the distinction the ownership axis is designed to make.

  Ownership 72 · Change 3 · Authority 1 · high

• Alexis de Tocqueville theorist

  Accepted private property while fearing concentrated industrial wealth as much as concentrated state power.

  Ownership 58 · Change 62 · Authority 76 · moderate

• Antonio Salazar leader

  Private ownership within a corporatist framework, with the state directing economic life toward its own ends.

  Ownership 66 · Change 8 · Authority 8 · high

• Augusto Pinochet leader

  The most thorough programme in this list of transferring ownership to private hands, with state economic direction removed.

  Ownership 90 · Change 22 · Authority 2 · high

• Benito Mussolini leader

  Private ownership retained under corporatist direction, with owners subordinate to the state’s aims rather than dispossessed. This is why he sits on the private side of the ownership axis and at the concentrated end of authority at the same time.

  Ownership 70 · Change 5 · Authority 3 · high

• Clement Attlee leader

  Nationalised the commanding heights and built universal provision while leaving most private ownership in place.

  Ownership 30 · Change 70 · Authority 84 · high

• Corneliu Zelea Codreanu organiser

  Hostile to both large private capital and to socialism, proposing a national corporate order built on peasant property. Contested: this could reasonably be placed further left on the ownership axis.

  Ownership 40 · Change 2 · Authority 2 · low

• Edmund Burke theorist

  Defended private property and inherited economic arrangements against redistribution.

  Ownership 66 · Change 18 · Authority 56 · moderate

• Eduard Bernstein theorist

  Social ownership of major industry to be reached by democratic and gradual means, with private ownership retained for much of the economy.

  Ownership 22 · Change 78 · Authority 76 · moderate

• Emiliano Zapata revolutionary

  Land to the communities that work it, taken from private estates, which is collective ownership in practice.

  Ownership 12 · Change 46 · Authority 64 · moderate

• Eugene Debs leader

  Social ownership of industry and transport was his platform, pursued through unions and elections.

  Ownership 16 · Change 74 · Authority 80 · moderate

• Francisco Franco leader

  Corporatist economy with private ownership retained and extensive state direction.

  Ownership 68 · Change 8 · Authority 4 · high

• Franklin D. Roosevelt leader

  Private ownership retained under heavy regulation, with public provision and public employment on a large scale.

  Ownership 38 · Change 72 · Authority 46 · moderate

• Friedrich Engels theorist

  Co-author of the programme for socialising production; ownership sits at the far collective end.

  Ownership 6 · Change 64 · Authority 46 · moderate

• Friedrich Hayek economist

  Markets and private ownership as the only workable mechanism for coordinating dispersed knowledge.

  Ownership 90 · Change 62 · Authority 88 · high

• George Orwell writer

  Called himself a democratic socialist and fought in Spain with a workers’ militia.

  Ownership 26 · Change 80 · Authority 90 · moderate

• Jawaharlal Nehru leader

  Mixed economy with state ownership of heavy industry and private ownership elsewhere.

  Ownership 36 · Change 76 · Authority 62 · moderate

• John Maynard Keynes economist

  Private ownership retained and markets used, with active management of demand and investment. He wanted to save capitalism from its instabilities, not replace it.

  Ownership 44 · Change 78 · Authority 74 · high

• John Stuart Mill theorist

  Accepted private property and markets while moving late in life toward cooperatives and limits on inherited wealth.

  Ownership 54 · Change 84 · Authority 88 · high

• Joseph Stalin leader

  State ownership of nearly all production, directed by central plan. Ownership was formally collective; control was not.

  Ownership 7 · Change 40 · Authority 3 · high

• Juan Perón leader

  Nationalised key industry and directed the economy while leaving much private ownership intact.

  Ownership 46 · Change 34 · Authority 26 · moderate

• Karl Marx theorist

  Abolition of private ownership of the means of production is the explicit programme, so the ownership axis is at its far end.

  Ownership 4 · Change 62 · Authority 44 · moderate

• Klemens von Metternich statesman

  Defended the existing property order, including serf-like obligations, against liberal economic reform.

  Ownership 70 · Change 6 · Authority 6 · high

• Konrad Adenauer leader

  Social market: private ownership with a strong welfare floor and competition law.

  Ownership 58 · Change 44 · Authority 74 · moderate

• Leo Tolstoy writer

  Rejected private property in land and gave away his own, while rejecting state socialism equally.

  Ownership 18 · Change 56 · Authority 92 · low

• Ludwig Erhard economist

  Competition and private ownership as the basis of prosperity, with a welfare floor rather than direction.

  Ownership 72 · Change 56 · Authority 72 · moderate

• Mao Zedong leader

  Collectivised agriculture and nationalised industry, with production directed by the party-state.

  Ownership 8 · Change 46 · Authority 5 · moderate

• Margaret Thatcher leader

  Privatisation, deregulation and market allocation; the clearest recent programme of moving ownership to private hands.

  Ownership 84 · Change 30 · Authority 34 · moderate

• Marie-Louise Berneri theorist

  Anarchist, therefore collective ownership without a state to administer it.

  Ownership 8 · Change 76 · Authority 94 · low

• Mikhail Bakunin theorist

  Collective ownership of productive property, with no separate owner class.

  Ownership 8 · Change 74 · Authority 95 · high

• Milton Friedman economist

  Monetarism, deregulation and privatisation; the private market as the default allocator.

  Ownership 92 · Change 66 · Authority 84 · high

• Mohandas Gandhi leader

  Hostile to industrial capitalism and to state socialism alike, favouring village production and trusteeship of wealth.

  Ownership 32 · Change 58 · Authority 86 · low

• Olof Palme leader

  Extensive public ownership and provision alongside private industry, with heavy taxation.

  Ownership 30 · Change 84 · Authority 82 · moderate

• Otto von Bismarck leader

  Private industry preserved and promoted, with state ownership of railways and a pioneer welfare system designed to defuse opposition.

  Ownership 62 · Change 18 · Authority 14 · high

• Peter Kropotkin theorist

  Advocated the abolition of private property and of exchange, with distribution by need.

  Ownership 5 · Change 78 · Authority 96 · high

• Pope Pius IX religious leader

  Defended church property and rejected liberal economic reorganisation; the church retained extensive landholding.

  Ownership 64 · Change 4 · Authority 4 · moderate

• Ronald Reagan leader

  Tax reduction, deregulation and privatisation, with the market as the allocator.

  Ownership 86 · Change 26 · Authority 40 · moderate

• Rosa Luxemburg revolutionary

  Socialisation of production was her programme, and she attacked reformist accommodation with private ownership.

  Ownership 10 · Change 74 · Authority 74 · moderate

• Simone Weil writer

  Worked in factories and farms and wrote on exploitation, while rejecting both collectivist and market orthodoxies.

  Ownership 30 · Change 48 · Authority 78 · low

• Vladimir Lenin leader

  Nationalised the commanding heights and directed production by plan, so capital sat with the state rather than with private owners, but not with workers either. This is the position the ownership axis was built to distinguish.

  Ownership 9 · Change 58 · Authority 8 · high

• Willy Brandt leader

  Social market economy: private ownership retained, with strong redistribution, codetermination and extensive public provision.

  Ownership 34 · Change 82 · Authority 80 · moderate

• Winston Churchill leader

  Accepted private ownership while nationalising and directing production in war, and building a welfare settlement after it.

  Ownership 58 · Change 40 · Authority 44 · moderate